Formative assessment refers to measurements and conclusions that are made during the course of a learning program. For example, if an instructor was teaching a lesson on aircraft systems, the instructor could pause during the lesson to assess what has been learned. From this assessment they could then change around the rest of the course to help the learner better understand that subject. Summative assessment refers to the measurements made at the end of a learning unit or program. An example of this would be an oral quiz at the end of a ground briefing, or even the FAA knowledge tests taken at the end of a ground course.
Criterion-referenced assessments are used to determine whether or not a learner has achieved an objectively set level of competence. An example of this are the FAA knowledge tests, where questions are selected from a set list and the test taker must get 80% of the questions correct to pass. Norm-referenced assessments are used when a learner is studying material for which there is no agreement on what a person must know. This kind of assessment can be used in a literature class where an assessment is based on how well a learner has mastered the materials compared to the norm for the class. Self-referenced assessments are used when the learning goals are personal. This is used when a learners success can only be measured by their own opinion. An example of this would be a student who is involved in religious education for their own development.
Self-directed learning involves postformal thought which is defined as thinking across theoretical systems, integrating feelings with thoughts, accepting contradictions to what is known, and addressing problems for which there are no final solutions. Self-directed learners prefer learning contracts where they can choose the learning and assessment activities. They are offended by criterion-referenced assessments where they can't critically think.
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